Characteristics of problems

Characteristics of problems Characteristics of Problems Determining the type of problem to be solved is particularly difficult. From the scientific point of view it has not been treated sufficiently yet.   It is, nevertheless, of fundamental importance because it covers the whole field of creativity, and the problem solver(s) heuristic behavior is contingent on the type of problem.   What is a problem?   This question was asked and answered by Karl Duncker (1945).   Duncker, who was a Gestalt psychologist, defined a problem in these words: â€Å"A problem arises when a living organism has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached.†Ã‚   This definition is, no doubt, very useful, because creativity tasks and activities always strive to address a problem.   Yet, Dunckers definition and formulation poses these caveats:   It is necessary to distinguish between a task and a problem.   It is the subjects level of domain knowledge, including his ability to find pertinent knowledge, if necessary, that makes the difference between the two. A task set by a researcher or experimenter may be a problem to certain subjects and no problem to others.  Ã‚   A problem may vanish or be resolved if the subject changes his goal.   A problem does not exist de facto, unless the subject observes discrepancies between his current situation and the goals he pursues. Reitman (1965) proposed that problems be viewed as three-component entities, having an initial state, a final (goal) state, and a set of processes that facilitate reaching the goal, starting from the initial state.   Minski (1961) proposed a distinction between two types of problems, those that according to the nature of the conditions of acceptability of solutions are either well defined or ill-defined.   A problem satisfying Reitmans conditions (Reitman, 1965) is a so-called well-defined problem: it can be solved by applying a systematic procedure that makes it possible to decide whether a proposed solution is correct or not.   It means that it is totally decidable: all pertinent solutions can be evaluated strictly using one binary variable: right or wrong.   The solution can thus be described as an all-or-nothing phenomenon.   There are no intermediate solutions between the functional and non-functional ones.   In general terms, any tests for which there exists a rigorous method of comparison between what is proposed and what is required is a well-defined problem. Examples of well-defined problems are board games, problems in mathematics, or problems in logic.   They may be very difficult to resolve, nevertheless.   Taking mans limited resources, psychologists face the task of explaining how human beings manage to solve problems in chess, mathematics or geometry within reasonable time.   Ill-defined problems are those that are not well-defined.   They result in a multitude of solutions that cannot be classified by using a binary truth-value, but by using a relative qualitative scale.   The response to a requirement thus allows grades, the determination of which is left to the referees.   The majority of problems occurring in everyday life are ill-defined problems: the improvement on an object or an apparatus, a new use of what already is known, the search for a sales idea or a marketing idea, etc. Ill-defined problems arise when some components of the problems statement, in the sense of Reitman, are unspecified, or are vague or fuzzy.   The definedness of problems varies in degree (Reitman, 1965, Ch. 5).   For instance, ‘take a little flower and bake bread for these people, which is vague in terms of the quantity of flower and the number of people, but specifies clearly the method: bake.   Another statement may run like this: ‘Let us overcome the current economic crisis.   This statement does not specify the method: what should be done to overcome the crisis?   ‘Do not just hang around, maximize something is an exhortation taken from a cartoon, in which both the initial state, the method and the goal are shrouded in a mental fog.   Ill-defined problems are more common than are well-defined problems, but it is all the more difficult to explain how to tackle them. It is worth noting that Minskis postulate does not necessarily cover the distinction between problem solving and creativity. For instance, the discovery of a new algorithm, or a new combination of known algorithms, is a creative act. But well-defined problems in the sense of Minsky may lead to an opposition between algorithmic procedures and inferential procedures. As for the ill-defined problems, Reitman (1964) proposed a typology of six classes of problems comprising the transformation or generation of states, objects, or collections of objects.   This taxonomy is not presented as a universal tool covering the whole field of creative situations, but simply as a general structure making it possible to collect the largest number possible of the creative situations.   This attempt at systemization has mainly a descriptive value, but it is not unlikely that it could also be used for deducing hypotheses related to the behavior of effectual solutions. Reitmans work is based on the introduction of the following three concepts: let A be an initial state or object (one which is expected to undergo transformation, modification, complementing, improvement, etc.) and let B be a final state or object (the solution to be obtained, elimination of problem).   Let the symbol à ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã…’ denote a process, program, or sequence of operations.   It is then possible to represent a large number of problematic situations parting from these three symbols by representing them by a general vector [A, B, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢].   Using these three concepts, six types of poorly defined problems can be distinguished. Type I.   The initial and terminal states A and B are well specified: the relevant data are known and the requirements to be satisfied are explained precisely.   The problem then consists in discovering the process à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ that makes it possible to pass from the well-specified state A to a well-specified state B.   For instance: how can a given function be incorporated in a specific device?   This type seems to cover a large class of problem situations. Type II.   The terminal state B is less precisely specified than in the previous type, while A is left entirely at the discretion of the experimenter.   In fact, nothing is said about the state, object or assembly of objects from which to part.  Ã‚   The initial material is largely undetermined and admits only one constraint to aid in constituting the one possible solution.   For instance: what should be done to make traveling by train more pleasurable? Here, obviously, the current state represents some level of train travel comfort or pleasure, and this should be increased.   But what exactly is to be achieved is an open question. Type III.   The initial state A consists in this case of an assembly of constituent parts each of which represents a concrete entity, while B represents a state or object to be achieved which is defined vaguely and is characterized by the fact that one or several of constituent parts of A have lost their separate identities after reaching B.   Reitman cites as an example Napoleons cook who was charged with the task to â€Å"make a good dish† B to celebrate the victory at Marengo using only available ingredients A.   This type is undoubtedly less general than the preceding ones.   Type IV.   A and B are presented as consisting of sub-components and are rather poorly defined.   This type differs from type II in that in the latter case there are no restrictions imposed on search, different analogous paths, and different associative paths the exploration of which can be relatively fruitful.   In type IV it is not like that.  Ã‚   The distinction between sub-components provides constraints within which the problem solution has to take place.   The research is, in other words, more strictly restrained than it is in the problems of type II. Type V.  Ã‚   The initial state A is given by reference to a well defined object, the final state B is given by a set of similarities and dissimilarities with respect to A.   An example given by Reitman to illustrate this type is the following: manufacturer ÃŽÂ ± of some equipment encounters a serious competition from ÃŽÂ ²-companys product.   The first company, ÃŽÂ ±, decides to change the design of the product in point to offer a price that is lower for a comparable quality than what its competitor ÃŽÂ ² asks.   The task thus does not necessarily require an entirely new manufacturing process, because the added cost of the new process would not help to slash the price according to original estimates.   Besides, the modification must be implemented fast because the competing product already is in the market while ÃŽÂ ±-companys sales decrease with each passing day.   The exigencies of this example illustrate the general type V product as a new device that m ust be functionally similar to the old version but must be cheaper. Type VI.   In this case, the final state B is well specified while the initial state A remains essentially empty, unstructured and largely undetermined.   Characteristic examples cited by Reitman comprise: to explain a new phenomenon, discover an alibi for a criminal deed, etc.   This type differs from type II in the degree of precision of the task.   It is thus possible to distinguish among six categories of poorly defined problems resorting to almost formal properties of their application.   A research activity the results of which would show that these categories incite heuristically different behavior on the part of individuals and groups still has to be accomplished.   A relevant taxonomy establishes first some ordering, i.e. introduces some logic in the pertinent knowledge field.   For this purpose the taxonomy distributes the phenomena or the entities considered according to their relevant characteristics, with no ambiguity involved.   It appears that, in general, each taxonomy displays at least two different utility values: First of all, the taxonomy presents a reference value that provides a framework for a certain subset of the universe.   The information already available about the elements of this subset thus cease to be fragmented and simply accumulated: in the continuation they are ordered with respect to one another.   They can be integrated and complemented.   Fragmented knowledge thus becomes systematic. This knowledge also represents an â€Å"operational† or heuristic value of the taxonomy in point. This value becomes apparent when the taxonomy leads to empirical research in order to validate its structure, its principle and its extent, or to uncover which variables of the taxonomy can be expected and unified.   In the case of problem solution and creativity research, one can try to establish some correspondence between certain types of tasks with certain behavioral phenomena, particularly those of psycholinguistic nature.   The first problem differentiation might take into consideration the different objective properties of problems: The problem is algorithmic: it can be resolved using an ordered sequence of specific operations.   It allows, in this sense, a truly coordinated division of labor, and is particularly suitable for groups with the centralized communication structure.   The problem is inferential: it can be visualized by means of trees, but the process of generalization of the trees cannot be decomposed into concatenated elementary operations.   A homogeneous structure is, however, more appropriate.   It can be seen that groups facing a specific situation adopt spontaneously the optimum organization to respond to this situation. Most authors, however, have resorted to local dichotomies based on a multitude of imprecise criteria.   The straightforward problem typologies are the following: Verbal and non-verbal tasks.   Verbal tasks are supposed to mobilize important cultural experience and imply the use of specific functions or hypothetic factors.   Non-verbal tasks are symbolic, or in other ways dependent on non-verbal perceptions. Intellectual and manipulation-dependent tasks.   In intellectual tasks, the principal operator is the brain.   Manipulation-dependent problems require a coordination of the brain and muscular factors.   Unique-solution and multiple-solutions tasks.   Then there are problems having a unique solution and problems having multiple solutions.   The totality of distinctions pertinent to a particular solution domain cannot be generalized, because their underlying criteria are too coarse and do not allow more than just a very summary control of the situation.   Shaws dimensional analysis In an attempt to present various aspects of group tasks in a systematic manner, Shaw (1963) collected a very eclectic set of 104 statements mostly taken from experimental literature.   The statements relate to both ill-defined and well-defined problems, to verbally and non-verbally formulated tasks, etc.   These various statements were evaluated according to six a priori defined dimensions, which can be visualized as continuously varying intervals in which each task occupies a point.   The six dimensions are characterized in the following manner: Requirements of cooperation.   This dimension permits to define the degree to which it is required that members of the group act in a coordinated manner to complete the task successfully.   It is thus a measure of dependence between the goal and the coordinated activity of the subjects.   Verifiability of the decision.   It is the degree to which the â€Å"rightness† or adequacy of the solution can be proved, either by reference to an authority, or by logical procedures (usually a mathematical proof), or by feedback (for instance by examining the consequences of the decision taken). Difficulty.   This is defined by Shaw abstractly as the quantity of effort necessary for executing the task.   Specifically, an indicator of difficulty can be the time required for solution, the number of errors made, etc. Clarity of purpose.   This denotes the degree of precision with which the requirements of the task are presented to members of the group, and how the members perceive the requirements. Multiplicity of approaches to the goal.   This dimension expresses the more or less great possibility to resolve the problem by various procedures.   It is thus a matter of possible paths to the solution, i.e. of the number of alternative solutions. Relationship between mental and motor requirements.   A task that only requires the implementation of intellectual activities will be among the strongest on this dimension.   Conversely, tasks requiring only motor abilities will be among the weakest.   A task requiring both intellectual and motor activities occupies an intermediate position between the two extremes. Intrinsic interest.   Problems are not equally attractive, i.e. they do not mobilize the same motivation.   This dimension is thus assigned the degree to which a particular task appears interesting to the subjects. Operational requirements.   This dimension was introduced to evaluate the number of different kinds of operations, knowledge or abilities required for the completion of the task. Familiarity within the population.   Individuals might have had a previous experience of the task in point, either direct or by means of an analogous task.   This dimension thus evaluates the relative â€Å"rareness† of a class of problems to a population. Multiplicity of solutions.   It is the number of different correct solutions for the problem in point.   That number can in general be evaluated exactly in a well-defined problem, but not if the estimate is very intuitive. This family of dimensions is intended to cover the maximum of traits occurring in every heuristic situation.   Certain dimensions thus relate to formal properties of the task, for instance numbers 2, 5, or 10, while others, e.g. numbers 7 and 9 refer direct to the consequences of applying a particular semantics (second level of determination).   Forty-nine referees, mostly graduate students of psychology, got the task of distributing the 104 sample tasks according to the 10 dimensions shown above.   Eight positions or degrees ordered by their magnitude were defined.   The judgments were consistent, except for the dimension â€Å"clarity of purpose†. With these data, Shaw got two factor analyses that resulted in disclosing five significant factors for task analysis: Difficulty, (factor I), the quantity of required effort displays a close relationship to the number of operations, knowledge, and required abilities for solving the problem.   The forth dimension, the â€Å"clarity of purpose† is equally an important aspect of difficulty: the less clear the goal is, the more difficult is the task judged to be.   Multiplicity of solutions (factor II) is a complex dimension that relates both to the number of acceptable solutions, to the diversity of paths leading to the solutions, and to the verifiability of a solution.   Shaw thinks that the essential aspect is the number of solutions, while the other two merely are its consequences.   While there are several solutions available, there also are several ways how to reach them. Proving the adequacy of each solution rigorously is hardly possible. Cooperation requirements (factor III) correspond exactly to the dimension of the same name.   The degree of completing a task successfully implies a coordinated action on the part of group members. The relationship between intellectual requirements motor requirements (factor IV) constitutes no doubt an independent dimension.   But it only shows a very weak correlation with the familiarity with the task within the population.   Familiarity in the population is considered a separate dimension for the same reason.   Nevertheless, it is necessary to point out that the familiarity seems relatively irrelevant, at least under the particular conditions of this work, where the majority of the tasks were somehow familiar to the subjects. Intrinsic interest (factor V), which corresponds to the intensity of motivation and the attraction exerted by the problem on the group members, too, is a dimension permeated with factor II. The first three of the six dimensions obtained finally seem to be both the most important and the least ambiguous ones.   It is of course possible, as Shaw himself notes, that there are other dimensions, equally important, which continued research could bring forth.   This first attempt will make it possible largely to control the principal components of the situation that comes into being as a problem to be solved is given to the subjects.   This is the only condition under which accumulation of experimental data in this field can be transformed into scientific knowledge. Categorization by Roby and Lanzetta Roby and Lanzetta (1958) proposed a model intended to define and highlight the most important characteristics of a group task.   For this purpose, they distinguish four sets of events occurring in the functioning of any group task system: a. A set Tiof task input data.   Here belong, for instance, the formulation of the problem to be solved and of the material it implies. b. A correlative set Giof initial activities of the group.   These comprise, among others, waiting times, observation, data recording, communication associated with input variables, etc. c. A set Goof outputs produced by the group.   In the creative process these comprise the traces of the heuristic process and solution suggestions. d. A set Toof environmental changes following from the groups activities. Roby and Lanzetta define three general types of properties: Descriptive aspects, including the qualitative nature of various events, their number, and metric properties. Distribution of the events in the space or by relation to other events. Functional aspects of events, i.e. their temporal occurrence as a function of foregoing events (sequential analysis). Each set of events, Ti, Gi, Go and To, can be studied and related to according to these three types of properties.   In theory at least, it is possible to characterize any group task, and in particular any creative situation, using a double-entry table for 12 cases. This is the formal equipment of the descriptive system of group tasks proposed by Roby and Lanzetta.   In an abstract analysis, however, this representation does not make the understanding of a truly psychological meaning of a specific task possible.   This remark led the authors to propose a complementary notion of â€Å"critical exigencies†.   This concept was introduced to cover the fact that each task requires certain behavior on the part of the group to be correctly executed, and calls for certain specific types of activities to be carried out.   The implementation of these requirements should thus help to reduce the discontinuity mentioned between the structural properties of the task and the psychological or psychosocial phenomena generated by its handling.   It is a different manner of contrasting the general and the particular.   In a way, this is what was above called the â€Å"second level of determination†. Roby and Lanzettas intention was not to put forward a theory permitting to characterize the problems rigorously, but rather to present a table for the analysis of systems of group tasks.   Their framework thus permits theoretically to classify any task parting from the values relevant to the task in the 12 boxes of the analysis table, but it does not make it possible to classify the types of tasks using a specific corpus of formal properties.   Thus, Roby and Lanzetta did not forge a typological tool, but, rather, a descriptive tool the general purpose of which is found precisely in the fact that the tool is deemed able to adapt itself to any task.   The goal of their work was not to distribute the generalized variable â€Å"task structure† on an arbitrary scale, but rather to find a set of invariant characteristics that would make it possible to situate the various problems that appear in the life of a working group.   Creative problems constitute in this context evid ently merely a special case.   It follows that the effort to determine the â€Å"invariants† of the analysis is probably of utmost importance and should complement any typological effort. Finally, an adequate taxonomy of poorly defined problems must comprise a meta-linguistic analysis of their formulation in the natural language: it must be possible to establish a rigorous correspondence between a formal type and the multitude of its verbal expressions or concretizations and, in parallel, part from a specific semantics to reach a logical class it illustrates.   Roqutte (1975) sketches the first attempt in this respect. Psychologists studying the ways people solve problem have adopted a reasonable strategy.   They study how people handle seemingly well-defined problems, and then apply theprocedure to the study of ill-defined tasks.   In some instances shortcuts to solving an ill-defined problem are possible: seek a well-defined version of the same problem and try to solve it, or find a new definition of the problem.   Defininition or interpretation of the problem is as important in tackling well-defined tasks as it is in working with ill-defined tasks.   Adversary and non-adversary problems This is another distinction between problems.   An adversary problem is one in which the problem solver is competing with a thinking opponent, or a seemingly thinking opponent, like a chess-playing computer.   In non-adversary problems the battle goes between a thinking problem solver and inert problem features.   The latter may be symbolic or real, but they do not react to what the problem solver does, in order to â€Å"defeat† him, and they do not care about what the human problem solver feels.   Semantically rich and semantically impoverished problems This distinction seems to be increasing in importance.   It was elaborated by Chi and his coworkers (1982).   A problem is semantically rich for the problem solver who brings a significant relevant knowledge to the problem.   The opposite is true of semantically impoverished problems.   As an example, consider a problem given to two problem solvers.   For the domain expert it is a semantically rich problem, for the novice it is a semantically impoverished problem.   This distinction thus expresses the problem-solvers view of the problem situation, or Shaws familiarity within the population. Most puzzles, IQ-tests, and the like, are semantically impoverished for most subjects.   Much of psychological research has been focused on solving semantically impoverished puzzles of the non-adversary type.   The semantically rich non-adversary tasks are increasing in importance.   This category comprises most tasks in computer programming and in physics.  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Self-Portrait Essay

Self-Portrait Essay My understanding of the society I live in changes from day to day. When Obama was elected, I had great hopes for this country and that racial equality would finally balance out and that old prejudices would disappear Black people would get better jobs, everyone would be equal, and the Democrats would take care of us and see to it that my parents and their parents get a fair deal here in America. I had unrealistic expectations, like most young people. I did not realize that the economy would go down so quickly. But I have the encouragement of my family and church, to forge ahead and attain my goals. We are native Suirnamese people, South American, and my descendants are Indian. My parents brought me to America when I was four years old. I am nineteen years of age. Since I am fully Americanized and have grown up in America, I have never experienced immigrant prejudice; my skin is light and I have no accent. I would have to label myself in the American society as a young female adult. I see myself in society as a young female trying to keep up with other females who are judged on their ability to look good, wear the right hair styles that are contemporary, display stylish accessories and clothing on a daily basis, and keep the figure because fat people are discriminated against, openly, no matter what age they are. This society is health conscious, weight conscious, clothes conscious, designed brand conscious, body pamper conscious, sex conscious, and materialistic. I see myself as having to keep up with other females my age; if not, I am excluded from social events and activities that enjoy prominence in my community. If I dont have the right clothes for church benefits and extra-curricular activities in my social network, I am not accepted into the group and it is a zero tolerance situation as far as young females are concerned. With regard to what is expected of me by other females, and how I see my own self-image, it is easier to go along with my peers and sta y competitive with them, then it is to drop out of the social network, become an outsider and not be accepted by my age group. In order to stay popular, well-liked and trusted by my peers, I have to maintain the correct appearance so that I remain status quo with the other young female adults who aspire to become educated, successful and financially secure. Theres no way to deny the importance of high beauty standards in this country, today. One cannot turn away from billboards, television ads, magazine pages, newspaper clips, or even video games that perpetuate the slender, perfect body with perfect long fingernails glamorous hair and make-up and sexy clothes that are clingy and revealing. Theres no way to get away from the broadcasts about fat Americans and European dislike for fat Americans; and everywhere you turn, there is someone behind you that looks like Madonna or any one of thousands of perfect role models flashing in the media. They are cultural heroes and their femininity is no longer denied. I guess that in order to rule the world, a woman has to be a Barbie doll so that she will gain attention from men even if she doesnt have the brains to go with it. Perhaps that is the message that women and advertisers are communicating in the 21st century. Furthermore, since society is so set on stressing the importance of a thin bod y and a gorgeous face, it is not a surprise that eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia to overcome the female fear of becoming fat are on the rise today (Medias Effect on Girls, 2009, 1-4). They are what they consume, and it is killing them. Coming to America when I was four years old was a tremendous culture shock for my parents, but not for me. My mother never realized that female beauty could be so concentrated in exacted guidelines and standardized measurements as it is here in America. It is most puzzling how American women can subject themselves to such a biased standard of configuration. In my country of origin, Suriname, women are valued for their individuality and natural charm and beauty. We dont have a standard look of fashion beauty nor do we feel obligated or condemned to a life of copying what we see in magazines. Although we do have fads, as all countries do, our maturity lends to individual styles which are socially acceptable and respected. There is no need for false imaging to gain social acceptance. However, this was the country my parents, grandparents and descendants grew up in. Over the years as I was growing up, my parents realized that they had to furnish me with everything my classmates had; just to keep me from being bullied by classmates. Apparently, the influence of advertising in America is so persuasive that women cannot relate to themselves unless they emulate their stage stars and media stereotypes. Female appearance is central in America, and according to Dr. Smith, professor of Marketing at the University of Wisconsin, ads with female models are usually for appearance-related products, and by the time girls reach adolescence, they redefine their image and envision their futures (Advertising Images of Girls, 1997, 2). Thus, advertising and media supports send messages that could limit their aspirations, undermine their self worth and endanger their health. Example: body-pampering with soaps and shampoos that show lady (thin lady) in the shower, with long beautiful hair, perfect dimensions and perfect everything. Then she steps into a sexy little dress that she could not wear until she joined Jenny Craig and lost 25 pounds of unwanted weight. Now she is perfect, acceptable, and the dress she is wearing can be bou ght at a Wal-Mart and the thin body can be purchased at Jenny Craig Diet Center, and the shampoo and soap can be purchased from any local discount store. So the advertisers are happy, the actors are rich, and the female viewer is frowning because she cant wear the skinny little dress because she hasnt lost enough weight to fit into a size 5. The emphasis on female appearance tells American females that they are under pressure to be thin. On the other hand, this tells boys and men that women are supposed to be, above everything else, a pretty and perfect package and something to behold, but not necessarily to respect (Advertising Images of Girls, 1997, 2). All I can hope to accomplish as a young female adult is to fit in, get a good education and career, not rely on marriage to fulfill my identity, and keep a close affiliation with my church and community. Bibliography Advertising Images of Girls and Women. (Fall 1997). A Report from Children Now. 1-5 Available on http://www.childrennow.org/media/medianow/mnfall1997.html Medias Effect on Girls: Body Image and Gender Identity. (03 April 2009) 1-4. Available on http://www.medianfamily.org/facts/facts_mediaeffect.shtml

Liberalization :: essays research papers

Is liberalizing Waynia in the best interest of the country I believe it definitely is. When you look at all the positives that come from being a part of a liberalized country, it is the clear-cut choice. Free trade is something that comes with being liberal. When you see how free trade can open up so many new markets to you and your country, you’ll see that it is the only choice. Along with free trade, you need to look at how conservatives think that input into political matters when you’re not a noble or king is bad. Liberal belief is that contribution of thoughts and ideas coming from all people is a good thing. If you have an idea about how you could reduce taxes, or how you could remove tariffs restricting your business then by all means, let it out. That is the great thing about liberalization; freethinking is encouraged to help better supply your country with your own opinions. The final thing I want to harp on is freedom from religious persecution. You no longer have to worry about who to worship, or how to worship, but rather take into account all religious thoughts and chose for yourself what suits you best.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  From a financial point of view, now that you’re in an industrialized nation, wealth is no longer associated with only the land you possess. Now that a currency is used to represent your wealth, you’re going to want as much as possible. Liberalization preaches free trade, and free trade is the building blocks for a successful business. If you look at the second article in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, you’ll see that you have the right to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. This means that you have the right to trade and barter with whomever you choose. With this freedom you have the opportunity to get the highest asking price when selling your product because you’re not limited to who you can and can not sell or trade with.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Article eleven in the Declaration of the Rights of Man states â€Å"The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.† What that’s telling you is that your ideas and opinions are important to the country.

From their perspective: Children dealing with divorce Essay -- Social

The decision between a husband and wife to end their marriage due to irreconcilable differences has become an issue of epidemic proportions in the world today. Divorce is affecting people of all ages from the oldest to the youngest, tearing families apart. While the husband and wife getting the divorce are putting an end to what many of them once thought would be the best thing that would ever happened to them, it is their children who reap the most severe consequences. Children who were once looked after by both parents must adjust to living with one parent or moving back and forth between the two along with numerous other adjustments. The effects of divorce are not limited to practical adjustments alone, but research also indicates that children who go through the divorce of their parents experience physical and psychological troubles as well. According to recent research if current divorce rates remain steady, one in four children will go through the divorce of their parents befor e they are sixteen (Doweling & Gorell-Barnes, 1999). Another statistic shows that between 1972 and 1997 more than a million young children were involved in divorce each year (Zinsmeister, 1997). It is imperative in our society that is experiencing divorce so rampantly that we understand through research and observation the effects divorce has on children. The effects of divorce on children has been an issue of great controversy among professionals and parents alike. Research is inconclusive in many areas but enough evidence has been gathered to conclude that divorce does indeed have an impact on children. The effects of divorce, how much a child is impacted and how long the impact of divorce lasts, hinges largely on the age of the child when they ex... ...hat a child may experience after a family breakup (Jost & Robinson, 1991). Though the research presented here has focused on the negative effects divorce has on children there are instances where children hardly experience any ill effects from divorce. This is usually the case when the child’s parents are in abusive relationships or they are able to continue healthy relationships with both their parents. Sadly this is the exception and not the rule for children dealing with divorce. Despite the fact that there are several different opinions concerning the effects divorce has on children the majority of researchers agree that having married parents offers many benefits to children. These include but are not limited to, a higher standard of living, exposure to effective parenting, less stress overall and are more likely to succeed in school (McGuiness, 2006).

Homeschooling Pros and Cons Essay -- Home School Education Essays

Homeschooling Pros and Cons Homeschooling is a rising alternative in children’s education. As with any other major movement there have been doubts and debates as well as support and promotion for this educational approach. Homeschooling was once the norm in society before there was a public school system. But the parents involved in homeschooling feel very strongly about the positive outcomes that it has brought about in the lives and success of their children. It has once again surfaced and become popular but there are several people who question the possible negative effects this option creates. Criticism of homeschooling is vast and there are several different aspects as to why it could be detrimental to the development of a child. One such argument is that experiences of diversity are lost when students are taught in the home. They have lost the opportunity to work with peers of varying culture and social statuses in an academic environment. Such experiences are essential preparation for social and professional life outside the home. Without this training at an early age they may be at a disadvantage when forced to go out into the work force. Another reason why some people disapprove of homeschooling is that since the parents can design what is taught their children only are exposed to the parents’ views. This results in the children having limits on their ability to form their own views and ultimately forming their own unique personality and values. Also to be considered is lack of work ethic built through a structured school setting. The discipline that is learned will be used later on to maintain a steady job and allows them to become accustomed to the rigidity of professional industry. Also in the classroom children ... ...November 23, 2003, from EBSCOhost on the World Wide Web: http://search.epnet.com Ray, B. (2002). Customization through homeschooling. Educational Leadership 59(7), 50-55. Retrieved November 23, 2003, from EBSCOhost on the World Wide Web: http://search.epnet.com Reich, R. (2002). The civic perils of homeschooling. Educational Leadership 59(7), 56-60. Retrieved November 23, 2003, from EBSCOhost on the World Wide Web: http://search.epnet.com Staehle, D (2000). Taking a different path: A mother’s reflection on homeschooling. Roeper Review 22(4), 270-272. Retrieved November 23, 2003, from EBSCOhost on the World Wide Web: http://search.epnet.com Wichers, M. (2001). Homeschooling: Adventitious or detrimental for proficiency in higher education. Education 122(1), 145-151. Retrieved November 23, 2003, from EBSCOhost on the World Wide Web: http://search.epnet.com

Neglecting of Students Essay

In the story â€Å"I Just Wanna Be average† poetry, scholarly research, textbook, and book writer Mike Rose recounts his years in vocational track school. I agree with Rose’s views on teachers not valuing their students and them neglecting them as well. The sentence â€Å"I just want to be average† is what manifested this whole paper. Not an individual not a person at high standards but just average, Roses approach to this issue is very significant and formal. He fixates on this sentence because he then realizes that those in the vocational school were trying to be someone else instead of themselves. â€Å"Reject the confusion and frustration by openly defining yourself as the Common Joe† (Rose 3). The common joe was exactly what the students were trying to be. Rose uses his own experience of being placed into vocational school because of a test mix up. He talks about his frustration of not being valued as an individual. He talks about his other classmates with great detail. His title came from his classmate Ken Harvey one day in religion class, he said the sentence that turned out to be one of the most memorable of the hundreds of thousands I heard in the Voc. Ed. Years. We were talking about the parable of the talents, about achievement, working hard, doing the best you can do, blah-blah-blah, when the teacher called on the restive Ken Harvey for an opinion. Ken thought about it, but just for a second and said (with studied, minimal affect), â€Å"I just wanna be average.† That woke me up. Average? Who want to be average? (Rose 3) Rose talks about how that sentence has stayed with him for years. â€Å"The vocational track, however, is most often a place for those who are just not making it, a dumping ground for the disaffected† (Rose 2). So throughout the whole story he tries to make it understandable of how that sentence connects with the education system and he does that by showing how the â€Å"disaffected† students are looked at. As a matter of fact Rose was lucky enough to switch to college prep where he met Mr. MacFarland a teacher who was dedicated to teach his heart out. At first, we couldn’t believe this guy, thought he slept in his car. â€Å"But within no time, he had us so startled with work that we didn’t much worry about where he slept or if he slept at all. We wrote three or four essays a month. We read a book every two to three weeks, starting with the Iliad and ending up with Hemingway. He gave us a quiz on  the reading every other day. He brought a prep school curriculum to Mercy High. (Rose 5) This quote shows how Rose was introduced to a class where he could not get by, by using one half of his brain. So instead of being average and thinking average he had to rise to another level. So he worked hard and he became hooked and interested in Mr. MacFarland teachings. Rose makes his point of how his teacher had impacted his life. What I enjoyed the most about Mike Rose story is his use of personal experiences to get his point across about the neglecting of students. The main point and the situation both associate with each other very well because of the way the story is organized, which brings great quality to the story. I do feel as if Rose does not look at his fortune as something that he truly earned because he is very intelligent. I like how Rose expresses how the potential to reach high standards is up to the student but yet the teacher is the one there to enhance your understandings. When he uses the word average I feel like he uses it loosely as if he doesn’t use it with a complex meaning. I think when Rose is saying being average he is talking about blending in with those that are considered normal. He is pretty much saying that any and everyone can be average. I feel like being average is not important because everyone will live their lives according to how they feel comfortable. Judgment has always been in the air and it will never go away. Instead of students trying to be average, teachers need to step up to the plate and serve as a key point in student’s educations. Teachers need to do what they are hired to do and they need to stop half doing their jobs. If a parent is not supportive in a child’s education than I believe that the teacher should be the child’s number 1 supporter. Instead of looking at some children as â€Å"disaffected† teachers should look at them as unique. I say that because every child deserves the chance and opportunity to earn an education. With or without great intelligence every student should be valued and treated fair. Rose’s story is very effective as it is, his encounters in life is a lesson well learned for him to pass on to others. References Rose, M. (1989). I Just Wanna Be Average. Mike Rose

Macbeth English Ib-Hl Essay

ENGLISH HL SHAKESPEARE- MACBETH ESSAY It is human nature to be intrigued by all things mystical and dangerous. We fear the unknown but seek it nonetheless out of greed. Most of Shakespeare’s works hold an element of the supernatural and the play Macbeth is no exception. In this play we see a contemporary morality that warns of the dangers of trafficking with instruments of darkness; the witches in the play prophesize of Macbeths future as king, and Macbeth blinded by his hunger for power fails to recognize that the witches prophecies are luring him to evil .In act 1 scene 3 we see the effect that the excitement of the prophecies has had on his imagination as he begins to contemplate murdering the king. As Macbeth gets closer to kingship his imagination grows wild and evil. This essay will aim to describe how internal conflict, imagery and themes are used in establishing Macbeth’s confused, guilty and eventually confident state of mind as he made his way to Duncanâ€℠¢s chamber. Macbeth suffers from internal conflict as he battles with his guilt and ambitions to be king. The internal conflict of Man verses himself is seen in Macbeths aside in act 1 scene 3.This aside holds many powerful statements by Macbeth about his sense of confusion and torn state of mind. For example â€Å"the supernatural soliciting (temptation) cannot be ill- cannot be good†¦ if good, why do I yield to that suggestion† is an antithesis that gives the audience further insight into Macbeth’s way of reason. When broken down, this antithesis show that Macbeth knew something terrible was going to happened (â€Å"cannot be good†) but Macbeth, energized by the prophecies and possibility that he will be king (â€Å"cannot be ill†) knows he lacks the strength to overcome his desires.Macbeth is deeply agonized at the thought of killing the king who he has gained honor, respect and a good reputation from. He takes pride in his honor and fears ruining it. But the chance of being kings is too great of an opportunity for Macbeth to give up. To audiences and/or readers new to Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth may seem ruthless. But his doubts and uncertainties about killing the king show some sense of compassion and morality. Shakespeare often presents uncertain and abnormal conditions of the mind in the leading protagonists in his plays in order to excite and arouse emotions whether it is of pity, fear or astonishment within the udience. Macbeth does not think so much about the wrongness of killing Duncan but rather he looks at the innocence of Duncan and thinks about how the people will feel if the king were dead. Macbeth therefore spirals himself into a confused and hesitant state of mind as he fights to wrestle down his guilt in order to follow through with the murder of king Duncan. Macbeth has become consumed by his desperate desires to be king and has developed an overly active imagination in attempts to conjure up the cour age, willpower and confidence to find a way to successfully kill Duncan without being caught.Unfortunately Macbeth faces difficulties containing his active imagination and this leads him into mind states of denial uncertainty and confusion. All this is captured perfectly by Shakespeare’s use of the imagery of light and dark in act 1 scene 4:â€Å"stars hide your fires! Let not light see my black and deep desires! † Light symbolizes life, virtue and goodness while the dark symbolizes evil and death. Macbeth requests the starts to hides their fires so that there is darkness, because the evil deeds he is about to commit are so horrible that It would blind ones sight to look, therefore partial blindness is necessary to carry it out.Light and darkness are extended metaphors to represent nature. Macbeth hides from nature (hides from the light of the stars) and uses nature to hide his cruel intentions (performs the murder in the dark of night). This particular phrase shows eq uivocation whereby Macbeth is denying himself of the knowledge that he is capable of such horrors by wanting the stars to hide their light from him. It is within this denial that a glimmer of uncertainty and confusion peak through Macbeth. If he were certain about the murder he would have had the confidence to face the exposing light of nature fearlessly.True evil fears no good. Macbeth fears the light then he cannot be a purely evil individual. A purely evil individual fears nothing but himself and to add to that note that is reason why Macbeth is referred to as a tragic hero and not a villain. His tragedy is profound because he realizes that killing the king is wrong and mentally and physically he is very hesitant to do so but he still give into his selfishness ambitions as he makes his ways to Duncan’s chambers. As we move closer to the king’s murder in act 2, the evil in Macbeth begins to strengthen and solidify.We begin to see the cunning traits of a murder surfac e in Macbeth as the theme of appearance verses reality is brought out in his character at the end of act 1 scene 7 when he says â€Å"false face must hide what false heart doth know†. This example implies that one can never truly tell what is on someone else mind by looking at the face; the face will hide the truth that the heart and mind (conscience) knows. There is a metaphoric reference to the reality that is behind Macbeth’s appearance. The false face that Macbeth speaks of is like a mask worn by a thief.Like a thief he will put on a mask and steal Duncan’s life and crown away from him and no will would know it is him as he is disguised. In the beginning of this scene Macbeth had come to the conclusion that his ambitions were not justified enough to kill Duncan who was a good king and good man. When he told his wife that they must not go ahead with the plans she questions his manhood. In my opinion Macbeth’s need to prove his manhood is the driving fo rce that fuels his strength to follow through with the murder. It is important to note that Macbeth is a strong soldier but a week man.He burdens insecurities about being barren. If it were not for lady Macbeth and her ridicule about his cowardice, Macbeth would have never risen to the occasion. As he made his way to Duncan’s chamber Macbeth still had hesitations however his wife scrutiny and attack on his manhood gave him the confidence to see their plans through. The tragic tale of Macbeth epitomizes the deadliness that ambition for power holds. Within an instant Macbeth’s honorable and worthy service in battle evolves itself into a cowardly attack on a helpless victim all in the name of greed and power.Macbeth is not a dastardly villain. He is a fallen hero who has been stained by malignant ambitions and insecurities of his manhood driven not only by himself but also by the dominant female figures in the play (the witches and Lady Macbeth in particular). Macbeth cra ves and strives for the crown of Scotland. However as the time to kill the king breaches closer and closer Macbeth has an increasing sense of confusion and uncertainty about the person he is and the person he is about to become.